Yet, for a material consisting of a substrate on top of which a number of chemically different layers are present, the raw concentrations depend on measuring details like the takeoff angle during the XPS analyses and clearly are not a satisfactory way to describe the sample. For homogeneous materials, materials with randomly distributed atoms within the analyzed surface layer, these concentrations may be a useful quantity. % to obtain so-called raw concentrations. In order to obtain quantitative results, XPS peak areas generally are divided by sensitivity factors and normalized to 100 at.
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is widely applied for the chemical characterization of surfaces and multilayers of thin films.
